Taxonomic review of Saguinus mystax (Spix, 1823) (Primates, Callitrichidae), and description of a new species.

Although the Amazon has the greatest diversity of primates, there are still taxonomic uncertainties for many taxa, such as the species of the Saguinus mystax group. The most geographically broadly distributed and phenotypically diverse species in this group is S. mystax, and its phenotypic diversity has been recognized as three subspecies-S. mystax mystax, S. mystax pileatus and S. mystax pluto-with non-overlapping geographic distributions. In this sense, we carried out an extensive field survey in their distribution areas and used a framework of taxonomic hypothesis testing of genomic data combined with an integrative taxonomic decision-making framework to carry out a taxonomic revision of S. mystax. Our tests supported the existence of three lineages/species. The first species corresponds to Saguinus mystax mystax from the left bank of the Juruá River, which was raised to the species level, and we also discovered and described animals from the Juruá-Tefé interfluve previously attributed to S. mystax mystax as a new species. The subspecies S. m. pileatus and S. m. pluto are recognized as a single species, under a new nomenclatural combination. However, given their phenotypic distinction and allopatric distribution, they potentially are a manifestation of an early stage of speciation, and therefore we maintain their subspecific designations.

An integrative analysis uncovers a new, pseudo-cryptic species of Amazonian marmoset (Primates: Callitrichidae: Mico) from the arc of deforestation.

Amazonia has the richest primate fauna in the world. Nonetheless, the diversity and distribution of Amazonian primates remain little known and the scarcity of baseline data challenges their conservation. These challenges are especially acute in the Amazonian arc of deforestation, the 2500 km long southern edge of the Amazonian biome that is rapidly being deforested and converted to agricultural and pastoral landscapes. Amazonian marmosets of the genus Mico are little known endemics of this region and therefore a priority for research and conservation efforts. However, even nascent conservation efforts are hampered by taxonomic uncertainties in this group, such as the existence of a potentially new species from the Juruena-Teles Pires interfluve hidden within the M. emiliae epithet. Here we test if these marmosets belong to a distinct species using new morphological, phylogenomic, and geographic distribution data analysed within an integrative taxonomic framework. We discovered a new, pseudo-cryptic Mico species hidden within the epithet M. emiliae, here described and named after Horacio Schneider, the pioneer of molecular phylogenetics of Neotropical primates. We also clarify the distribution, evolutionary and morphological relationships of four other Mico species, bridging Linnean, Wallacean, and Darwinian shortfalls in the conservation of primates in the Amazonian arc of deforestation.

A new identification of the monkeys depicted in a Bronze Age wall painting from Akrotiri, Thera.

Bronze Age Aegean (ca. 3500-1100 B.C.) wall paintings from the islands of Crete and Thera depict monkeys in a variety of roles such as running wild in nature, possibly following (trained) commands, and participating in sacred activities. These images, while stylistically Aegean, are traditionally considered closely related to-and descendant from-Egyptian, Near Eastern, and Mesopotamian monkey imagery. While monkey depictions in the latter regions may provide species-specific characteristics, Aegean wall paintings typically lack this level of detail. In an attempt to better understand the relationships between the monkeys depicted in Aegean wall paintings and the species that were encountered by the Aegean, Mesopotamian, and Egyptian peoples, a collaborative team of primatologists, a taxonomic illustrator, and an art historian/archaeologist identified species-indicative visual characteristics. This collaborative approach led us to identify a new region that serves as a source for monkey iconography: the Indus River Valley. With an emphasis on the primatological aspect and the growing corpus of possible Indus goods and possible species found in the Aegean, a broader iconographic and socioreligious sphere of interaction emerges. In this expanded system, Mesopotamia functions as an intermediary that enables the movement of goods, raw materials, people, and iconography between the east and west. Mesopotamia may have even afforded an opportunity for Aegean peoples to encounter the creatures themselves, first-hand. Of primary importance to the methodology employed for this project is the cooperation of scholars from disparate disciplines-the stitching together of various projects and experiences in attempt to answer both new and previously unanswerable questions. This type of interdisciplinary approach can be applied to other species, sites, paintings, and objects to hone our understanding of period, place, animal, movement, and trade.

The Munduruku marmoset: a new monkey species from southern Amazonia.

Although the Atlantic Forest marmosets (Callithrix spp.) are among the best studied Neotropical primates, the Amazonian marmosets (Callibella humilis, Cebuella spp. and Mico spp.) are much less well-known. Even species diversity and distributions are yet to be properly determined because field data and materials currently available in scientific collections do not allow comprehensive taxonomic studies of Amazonian marmosets. From 2015 to 2018, we conducted 10 expeditions in key-areas within southern Amazonia where little or no information on marmosets was available. In one such region-the Tapajós-Jamanxim interfluve-we recorded marmosets with a distinctive pelage pigmentation pattern suggesting they could represent a new species. We tested this hypothesis using an integrative taxonomic framework that included phylogenomic data (ddRAD sequences), pelage pigmentation characters, and distribution records. We found that the marmosets of the northern Tapajós-Jamanxim interfluve have unique states in pelage pigmentation characters, form a clade (100% support) in our Bayesian and Maximum-Likelihood phylogenies, and occur in an area isolated from other taxa by rivers. The integration of these lines of evidence leads us to describe a new marmoset species in the genus Mico, named after the Munduruku Amerindians of the Tapajós-Jamanxim interfluve, southwest of Pará State, Brazil.

On a new species of titi monkey (Primates: Plecturocebus Byrne et al., 2016), from Alta Floresta, southern Amazon, Brazil.

The taxonomy of the titi monkeys (Callicebinae) has recently received considerable attention. It is now recognised that this subfamily is composed of three genera with 33 species, seven of them described since 2002. Here, we describe a new species of titi, Plecturocebus, from the municipality of Alta Floresta, Mato Grosso, Brazil. We adopt an integrative taxonomic approach that includes phylogenomic analyses, pelage characters, and locality records. A reduced representation genome-wide approach was employed to assess phylogenetic relationships among species of the eastern Amazonian clade of the Plecturocebus moloch group. Using existing records, we calculated the Extent of Occurrence (EOO) of the new species and estimated future habitat loss for the region based on predictive models. We then evaluated the species' conservation status using the IUCN Red list categories and criteria. The new species presents a unique combination of morphological characters: (1) grey agouti colouration on the crown and dorsal parts; (2) entirely bright red-brown venter; (3) an almost entirely black tail with a pale tip; and (4) light yellow colouration of the hair on the cheeks contrasting with bright red-brown hair on the sides of the face. Our phylogenetic reconstructions based on maximum-likelihood and Bayesian methods revealed well-supported species relationships, with the Alta Floresta taxon as sister to P. moloch + P. vieirai. The species EOO is 10,166,653 ha and we predict a total habitat loss of 86% of its original forest habitat under a "business as usual" scenario in the next 24 years, making the newly discovered titi monkey a Critically Endangered species under the IUCN A3c criterion. We give the new titi monkey a specific epithet based on: (1) clear monophyly of this lineage revealed by robust genomic and mitochondrial data; (2) distinct and diagnosable pelage morphology; and (3) a well-defined geographical distribution with clear separation from other closely related taxa. Urgent conservation measures are needed to safeguard the future of this newly discovered and already critically endangered primate.

How many pygmy marmoset (Cebuella Gray, 1870) species are there? A taxonomic re-appraisal based on new molecular evidence.

The pygmy marmoset, Cebuella pygmaea, the smallest of the New World monkeys, has one of the largest geographical distributions of the Amazonian primates. Two forms have been recognized: Cebuella pygmaea pygmaea (Spix, 1823), and C. p. niveiventris Lönnberg, 1940. In this study, we investigated if the separation of pygmy marmosets into these two clades can be corroborated by molecular data. We also examine and compare coloration of the pelage in light of the new molecular results. We analyzed the mtDNA cytochrome b gene and, for the first time for any Neotropical primate, we used a reduced representation genome sequencing approach (ddRADseq) to obtain data for recently collected, geographically representative samples from the Rio Japurá, a northern tributary of the Rio Solimões and from the Javarí, Jutaí, Juruá, Madeira and Purus river basins, all tributaries south of the Solimões. We estimated phylogenies and diversification times under both maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference criteria. Our analysis showed two highly supported clades, with intraclade divergences much smaller than interclade divergences, indicating two species of Cebuella: one from the Rio Japurá and one to the south of Solimões. The interpretation of our results in light of the current taxonomy is not trivial however. Lönnberg stated that the type of Spix's pygmy marmoset (type locality 'near Tabatinga') was obtained from the south of the Solimões, and his description of the distinct niveiventris from Lago Ipixuna, south of the Solimões and several hundred kilometres east of Tabatinga, was based on a comparison with specimens that he determined as typical pygmaea that were from the upper Rio Juruá (south of the Solimões). As such it remains uncertain whether the name pygmaea should be applicable to the pygmy marmosets north of the Rio Solimões (Tabatinga type locality) or south (near Tabatinga but across the Solimões). Finally, our analysis of pelage coloration revealed three phenotypic forms: (1) south of the Rio Solimoes, (2) Eirunepé-Acre, upper Juruá basin; and (3) Japurá. More samples from both sides of Solimões in the region of Tabatinga will be necessary to ascertain the exact type locality for Spix's pygmaea and to resolve the current uncertainties surrounding pygmy marmoset taxonomy.

Phylogenomic Reconstruction of Sportive Lemurs (genus Lepilemur) Recovered from Mitogenomes with Inferences for Madagascar Biogeography.

The family Lepilemuridae includes 26 species of sportive lemurs, most of which were recently described. The cryptic morphological differences confounded taxonomy until recent molecular studies; however, some species' boundaries remain uncertain. To better understand the genus Lepilemur, we analyzed 35 complete mitochondrial genomes representing all recognized 26 sportive lemur taxa and estimated divergence dates. With our dataset we recovered 25 reciprocally monophyletic lineages, as well as an admixed clade containing Lepilemur mittermeieri and Lepilemur dorsalis. Using modern distribution data, an ancestral area reconstruction and an ecological vicariance analysis were performed to trace the history of diversification and to test biogeographic hypotheses. We estimated the initial split between the eastern and western Lepilemur clades to have occurred in the Miocene. Divergence of most species occurred from the Pliocene to the Pleistocene. The biogeographic patterns recovered in this study were better addressed with a combinatorial approach including climate, watersheds, and rivers. Generally, current climate and watershed hypotheses performed better for western and eastern clades, while speciation of northern clades was not adequately supported using the ecological factors incorporated in this study. Thus, multiple mechanisms likely contributed to the speciation and distribution patterns in Lepilemur.

Relationship of lipoproteins to cardiovascular events: the AIM-HIGH Trial (Atherothrombosis Intervention in Metabolic Syndrome With Low HDL/High Triglycerides and Impact on Global Health Outcomes).

OBJECTIVES: This study sought to examine the relationship between niacin treatment, lipoproteins, and cardiovascular (CV) outcomes in this secondary analysis of the AIM-HIGH (Atherothrombosis Intervention in Metabolic Syndrome With Low HDL/High Triglycerides and Impact on Global Health Outcomes) trial. BACKGROUND: During a 3-year follow-up in 3,414 patients with established CV disease and low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) levels, combined niacin + low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C)-lowering therapy did not reduce CV events compared with LDL-C-lowering therapy alone. METHODS: Subjects taking simvastatin and/or ezetimibe were randomized to receive extended-release (ER) niacin 1,500 to 2,000 mg or minimal immediate-release niacin (≤ 150 mg) as placebo at bedtime. LDL-C levels in both groups were maintained from 40 to 80 mg/dl. Hazard ratios were estimated by using Cox proportional hazards models for relationships between lipoproteins and the composite endpoint of CV death, myocardial infarction, acute coronary syndrome, ischemic stroke, or symptom-driven revascularization. RESULTS: CV outcomes were not associated with ER niacin in any baseline lipoprotein tertile. In a subset of patients in both the highest triglyceride (≥ 198 mg/dl) and lowest HDL-C (<33 mg/dl) tertiles, ER niacin showed a trend toward benefit (hazard ratio: 0.74, p = 0.073). In-trial LDL-C levels, non-HDL-C levels, and the total cholesterol/HDL-C ratio were positively associated with CV events in the control group, but these relationships were absent in the ER niacin group. CONCLUSIONS: Baseline lipoprotein tertiles did not predict differential benefit or harm with ER niacin added to LDL-C-lowering therapy, but a small dyslipidemic subgroup may benefit. ER niacin attenuated expected relationships of lipoprotein risk factors with CV events, raising the possibility that nonlipoprotein actions of niacin could affect risk. (Niacin Plus Statin to Prevent Vascular Events [AIM-HIGH]; NCT00120289).

Nuclear versus mitochondrial DNA: evidence for hybridization in colobine monkeys.

BACKGROUND: Colobine monkeys constitute a diverse group of primates with major radiations in Africa and Asia. However, phylogenetic relationships among genera are under debate, and recent molecular studies with incomplete taxon-sampling revealed discordant gene trees. To solve the evolutionary history of colobine genera and to determine causes for possible gene tree incongruences, we combined presence/absence analysis of mobile elements with autosomal, X chromosomal, Y chromosomal and mitochondrial sequence data from all recognized colobine genera. RESULTS: Gene tree topologies and divergence age estimates derived from different markers were similar, but differed in placing Piliocolobus/Procolobus and langur genera among colobines. Although insufficient data, homoplasy and incomplete lineage sorting might all have contributed to the discordance among gene trees, hybridization is favored as the main cause of the observed discordance. We propose that African colobines are paraphyletic, but might later have experienced female introgression from Piliocolobus/Procolobus into Colobus. In the late Miocene, colobines invaded Eurasia and diversified into several lineages. Among Asian colobines, Semnopithecus diverged first, indicating langur paraphyly. However, unidirectional gene flow from Semnopithecus into Trachypithecus via male introgression followed by nuclear swamping might have occurred until the earliest Pleistocene. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, our study provides the most comprehensive view on colobine evolution to date and emphasizes that analyses of various molecular markers, such as mobile elements and sequence data from multiple loci, are crucial to better understand evolutionary relationships and to trace hybridization events. Our results also suggest that sex-specific dispersal patterns, promoted by a respective social organization of the species involved, can result in different hybridization scenarios.

Ranolazine for chronic stable angina.

Ranolazine is a new and unique antianginal drug that has been approved for the treatment of chronic stable angina pectoris. The drug is administered as a sustained-release formulation. Although the drug's mechanism of action has not been fully elucidated, current thinking is that ranolazine, a selective inhibitor of late sodium influx, attenuates the abnormalities of ventricular repolarisation and contractility associated with ischaemia. Three randomised trials have shown efficacy for ranolazine in increasing exercise testing or reducing anginal episodes or use of glyceryl trinitrate. Side-effects include dizziness, constipation, nausea, and the potential for prolongation of the QT(c) interval. Ranolazine seems to be a safe addition to current traditional drugs for chronic stable angina, especially in aggressive multidrug regimens.

Nuts as part of a healthy cardiovascular diet.

The increasing trend of obesity has been associated with a greater prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus and may lead to more vascular disease. Nuts, a rich source of monounsaturated fatty acids and fiber, have been shown to decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease and the risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus. Numerous studies have demonstrated that nuts favorably affect serum lipids. They also exhibit a number of nonlipid benefits, including improved weight management, greater insulin sensitivity, and favorable endothelial effects, as well as having anti-inflammatory properties. Incorporating nuts into the diets of more people may lead to a variety of cardiovascular benefits.

Sildenafil citrate does not reduce exercise tolerance in men with erectile dysfunction and chronic stable angina.

AIMS: The aim of this study was to evaluate whether sildenafil, used for treatment of erectile dysfunction (ED), affects the exercise tolerance and ischaemic threshold in men with exercise-induced angina not taking nitrates. METHODS: This was a double-blind placebo-controlled study in men with ED and chronic stable angina, assessing the effect of sildenafil on time to limiting angina during incremental treadmill exercise. Patients remained on their antianginal therapy and received a 100-mg dose of sildenafil or placebo 1h prior to treadmill exercise. Other measurements included times to onset of angina, 1-mm ST-segment depression, and total exercise time. RESULTS: Adjusted treatment differences for the time to limiting angina, time to onset of angina, total exercise time, and time to 1-mm ST-segment depression were (mean+/-SE) 20+/-10s (95% CI, 1-39; P=0.040), 32+/-11s (95% CI, 11-53; P=0.004), 20+/-10s (95% CI, 0-39; P=0.049), and 12+/-17s (95% CI, -21 to 45, P=0.48), respectively, in favour of sildenafil. There were no serious treatment-related adverse events. CONCLUSIONS: Sildenafil was well tolerated and did not adversely affect any exercise parameter in men with coronary artery disease and ED. Favourable trends in total exercise duration and times to onset of angina and limiting angina were recorded with sildenafil use.

Long-term safety and efficacy of a once-daily niacin/lovastatin formulation for patients with dyslipidemia.

Combination therapy is increasingly recommended for patients with multiple lipid disorders, especially those at high risk for coronary events. We investigated the long-term safety and effectiveness of a new drug formulation containing once-daily extended-release niacin and lovastatin. A total of 814 men and women (mean age 59 years) with dyslipidemia were enrolled in a 52-week multicenter, open-label study. We used 4 escalating doses (niacin/lovastatin in milligrams): 500/10 for the first month, 1,000/20 for the second, 1,500/30 for the third, and 2,000/40 for the fourth month through week 52. Dose-dependent effects were observed for all major lipid parameters. At week 16, mean low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol and triglycerides were reduced by 47% and 41%, respectively; mean high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol was increased by 30% (all p <0.001). LDL/HDL cholesterol and total/HDL cholesterol ratios were also decreased by 58% and 48%, respectively. These effects persisted through week 52, except for the mean increase in HDL cholesterol, which had increased to 41% at 1 year. Lipoprotein (a) and C-reactive protein also decreased in a dose-related manner (by 25% and 24%, respectively, on 2,000/40 mg; p <0.01 vs baseline). Treatment was generally well tolerated. The most common adverse event was flushing, which caused 10% of patients to withdraw. Other adverse events included gastrointestinal upset, pruritus, rash, and headache. Drug-induced myopathy did not occur in any patient. The incidence of elevated liver enzymes to >3 times the upper limit of normal was 0.5%. Once-daily niacin/lovastatin exhibits substantial effects on multiple lipid risk factors and represents a significant new treatment option in the management of dyslipidemia.